Materials and methods related to the inflammatory effects of secreted amyloid precursor proteins

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides, inter alia, methods and materials useful to affect the inflammatory/and or neuroprotective effects of secreted amyloid precursor protein. In one broad aspect of the present invention, there are provided methods to reduce inflammation caused by sAPP in the brain of a mammal in need of such reduction, comprising administering a pharmaceutically-effective amount of a compound which inhibits the amino terminal region of sAPP involved in inflammatory response. In particular, a method as described, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises Val 20  to Tyr 303  (using the βPP 695  numbering system) is provided, although a method as above, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises the region which binds ApoE is also provided.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0001] Unchecked inflammation in the brain results in neural tissue necrosis which can manifest as seizures, dementia, loss of mental capacities, or death. For example, epilepsy, dementia due to Alzheimer's disease, stroke and traumatic brain injury have all been linked to dysfunctional inflammatory responses, although causal relationships between agents responsible for inducing the inflammatory response and the inflammatory response thereby induced have been speculative.

[0002] With regard to Alzheimer's disease, one agent, the secreted amyloid precursor protein (sAPP) has been shown to be neuroprotective, (Mattson et al., 10 Neuron 243 (1993) and Smith-Swintosky et al., 63 J Neurochem 781 (1994) and the regulator ApoE has been shown to potentiate the neuroprotective activity of sAPPα. Barger and Mattson, 69(1) J Neurochem 60 (1997). The extent of neuroprotection was shown in Barger and Mattson to vary among allelic variants of apolipoprotein E (ApoE), with ApoE3 apparently being superior to ApoE4 in its ability to induce the neuroprotective effects. ibid. It was speculated in Barger and Mattson that individuals who carried at least one ApoE4 allele had reduced sAPP-related neuroprotection, due to ineffectual inhibition of phosphoinositides, and resulting detrimental calcium ion increases. Furukawa et al., 67 J Neurochem 1882 (1996), showed the neuroprotection to result from residues 596-612, the existence of these residues in sAPPα distinguish sAPPα from sAPPβ.

[0003] Alzheimer's disease currently affects 4 million Americans. The cumulative health care costs associated with Alzheimer's, stroke and traumatic brain injury are $155 billion/year in the United States. Americans desperately need treatments which ameliorate the symptoms of these diseases and injuries.

[0004] Citation of the above documents is not intended as an admission that any of the foregoing is pertinent prior art. All statements as to the date or representation as to the contents of these documents is based on subjective characterization of information available to the applicant, and does not constitute any admission as to the accuracy of the dates or contents of these documents.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0005] It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide materials useful in assays for agents to treat inflammation related to sAPP.

[0006] It is a fiber object to provide methods to reduce the negative inflammatory effects of sAPP.

[0007] It is yet another object to provide methods to potentiate the positive neuroprotective effects of sAPPα by inhibiting the inflammatory effects of that molecule.

[0008] It is yet another object to provide research materials and methods useful to study sAPP.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0009]FIG. 1 Structural requirements for sAPP stimulation of microglia. Constructs containing the coding sequences of human sAPPα, sAPPβ, and sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹² were expressed in E. coli and purified to apparent homogeneity. Primary microglia were treated with 0.1-10 nM of each protein. After 24 hours, the culture medium was tested for the presence of nitrite with Griess reagents. Values represent the mean±SEM for triplicate determinations within a single experiment that was representative of three performed Results for sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹² were significantly different from those for sAPPα and sAPPβ (p<0.0003 and p<0.04, respectively); the difference between sAPPα and sAPPβ was not significant.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0010] The present invention provides, inter alia, methods and materials useful to affect the inflammatory/and or neuroprotective effects of secreted amyloid precursor protein. In one broad aspect of the present invention, there are provided methods to reduce inflammation caused by sAPP in the brain of a mammal in need of such reduction, comprising administering a pharmaceutically-effective amount of a compound which inhibits the amino terminal region of sAPP involved in inflammatory response. In particular, a method as described, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises Val²⁰ to Tyr³⁰³ (using the βAPP₆₉₅ numbering system) is provided, although a method as above, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises the region which binds ApoE is also provided.

[0011] Any mammal which is prone to, or experiencing, the negative inflammation-producing effects of sAPP is subject to the present invention. Humans are the preferred subjects. In particular, humans with reduced levels of ApoE3, whether experiencing symptoms or not, are subject to the present methods. Whether a person carries the ApoE3 allele can be determined according to many assays, for example, according to i.e. U.S. Pat. Ser. Nos. 5,767,248; 5,756,067; 5,747,260; 5,716,828; 5,508,167; and 4,772,549 or other known methods. Moreover, those individuals which have diseases due to the pro-inflammation effects of sAPP, whether the disease is acute or not, are subject to the present invention. Persons with epilepsy, stroke, traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease are particularly likely to benefit from the present invention.

[0012] The pharmaceutical compound or compounds used in the present method can be any known compound or any compound discovered in the future, so long as the compound can reduce the inflammatory effects of sAPP. ApoE3 is a preferred such compound, although anti-sense nucleic acid which will inhibit production of at least the amino terminus of sAPP is also within the scope of the present invention.

[0013] ApoE3 can be obtained from recombinant expression systems or purification of human plasma and administered according to Aebischer et al., 2(6) Nat Med 696 (1996). In addition, compromise of the blood-brain barrier during disease (e.g. Skoog et al., 50(4) Neurol 966 (1998) may permit administration of ApoE3 intravascularly. Antisense constructs can be prepared according to Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning. A Laboratory Manual (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989) and Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Greene Publishing Associates, Inc., 1993).

[0014] In another broad aspect of the present invention, there are provided methods to potentiate the neuroprotective effects of sAPPα in a person in need of such potentiation, comprising administering a pharmaceutically-effective amount of compound which inhibits the amino-terminal region of sAPPα involved in inflammatory response. A method as above, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises Val²⁰ to Tyr³⁰³ using the βAPP₆₉₅ numbering system is a preferred embodiment of the methods of this aspect of the invention, although a method wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises the region which binds ApoE is also included.

[0015] As described for the inflammation-reducing aspect of the present invention, any mammal which is prone to, or experiencing, the negative inflammation-producing effects of sAPPα is subject to the present invention. Humans are the preferred subjects. In particular, humans with reduced levels of ApoE3, whether experiencing symptoms or not, are subject to the present methods. Whether a person carries the ApoE3 allele can be determined according to many assays, for example, according to previously mentioned procedures. Moreover, those individuals which have diseases due to the pro-inflammation effects of sAPPα, whether the disease is acute or not, are subject to the present invention. Persons with epilepsy, stroke, traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease are particularly likely to benefit from the present invention.

[0016] Moreover, the pharmaceutical compound or compounds used in the present methods can be any known compound or any compound discovered in the future, so long as the compound can potentiate the neuroprotective effects of sAPPα. ApoE3 is a preferred such compound, although anti-sense nucleic add which will bind at least the amino terminus of sAPPα is also within the scope of the present invention. These compounds can be obtained and administered as described above for the methods to affect inflammation.

[0017] With regard to the materials provided in the present invention, there are amino acid compounds and nucleic acid compounds disclosed. The compounds are all useful in assays for compounds which affect inflammatory effects of sAPP. These materials are also useful in scientific S research pertaining to sAPPs. In particular, an amino acids consisting essentially of SEQ ID NO 1 are provided. Also provided are methods to recombinantly produce an amino acid of SEQ ID NO 1, comprising expressing SEQ ID NO 2. SEQ ID NO 2 has this sequence: 5′-GTACCCACTGATGGTAATGCTGGCCTGCTGGCTGAACCCCAGATTGC CATGTTCTGTGGCAGACTGAACATGCACATGAATGTCCAGAATGGGAAGT GGGATTCAGATCCATCAGGGACCAAAACCTGCATTGATACCAAGGAAGGC ATCCTGCAGTATTGCCAAGAAGTCTACCCTGAACTGCAGATCACCAATGT GGTAGAAGCCAACCAACCAGTGACCATCCAGAACTGGTGCAAGCGGGGCC GCAAGCAGTGCAAGACCCATCCCCACTTTGTGATTCCCTACCGCTGCTTA GTTGGTGAGTTTGTAAGTGATGCCCTTCTCGTTCCTGACAAGTGCAAATT CTTACACCAGGAGAGGATGGATGTTTGCGAAACTCATCTTCACTGGCACA CCGTCGCCAAAGAGACATGCAGTGAGAAGAGTACCAACTTGCATGACTAC GGCATGTTGCTGCCCTGCGGAATTGACAAGTTCCGAGGGGTAGAGTTTGT GTGTTGCCCACTGGCTGAAGAAAGTGACAATGTGGATTCTGCTGATGCGG AGGAGGATGACTCGGATGTCTGGTGGGGCGGAGCAGACACAGACTATGCA GATGGGAGTGAAGACAAAGTAGTAGAAGTAGCAGAGGAGGAAGAAGTGGC TGAGGTGGAAGAAGAAGAAGCCGATGATGACGAGGACGATGAGGATGGTG ATGAGGTAGAGGAAGAGGCTGAGGAACCCTACGAAGAAGCCACAGAGAGA ACCACCAGCATTGCCACCACCACCACCACCACCACAGAGTCTGTGGAAGA GGTGGTTCGAGTTCCTACAACAGCAGCCAGTACCCCTGATGCCGTTGACA AGTAT-3′

[0018] Nucleic acids consisting essentially of SEQ ID NO 2 are provided, as are vectors and cells comprising that sequence.

[0019] Included within the scope of the present invention, with particular regard to the nucleic adds above, are allelic variants, degenerate sequences and homologues. Allelic variants are well known to those skilled in the art and would be expected to be found within a given individual since the genome is diploid and/or among a group of two or more individuals. The present invention also includes variants due to laboratory manipulation, such as, but not limited to, variants produced during polymerase chain reaction amplification or site directed mutagenesis. It is also well known that there is a substantial amount of redundancy in the various codons which code for specific amino acids. Therefore, this invention is also directed to those nucleic acid sequences which contain alternative codons which code for the eventual translation of the identical amino acid. For example, substitution of valine for leucine, arginine for lysine, or asparagine for glutamine may not cause a change in functionality of the polypeptide.

[0020] Lastly, a nucleic acid sequence homologous to the exemplified nucleic acid compounds (or allelic variants or degenerates thereof) will have at least 90% sequence homology with the nucleic acid compounds in the sequence listing. Most preferred is a mRNA which is a transcript of a sequence listing nucleic acid. Stringent hybridization conditions are described in Sambrook et al, Molecular Cloning. A Laboratory Manual (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989)

[0021] A variety of procedures known in the art may be used to molecularly clone the present nucleic acids. These methods include, but are not limited to complementation for function following the construction of a genomic DNA library in an appropriate vector system. Another method is to screen a genomic DNA library constructed in a bacteriophage or plasmid shuttle vector with a labeled oligonucleotide probe designed from the amino acid sequence of the gene. An additional method consists of screening genomic DNA libraries constructed in a bacteriophage or plasmid shuttle vector with a partial DNA encoding the gene. This partial DNA is obtained by specific PCR amplification of the gene DNA fragments through the design of degenerate oligonucleotide primers from the amino acid sequence of the purified gene product or by using another member of the gene family as a probe. Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning. A Laboratory Manual (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989) and Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Greene Publishing Associates, Inc., 1993) describe these procedures. Alternatively, the nucleic acids can be prepared as exemplified herein. When the nucleic acid is prepared or altered synthetically, advantage can be taken of known codon preferences of the intended host where the nucleic acid is to be expressed

[0022] The cloned nucleic acids may be expressed through methods known in the art. The DNA can be recombinantly expressed by molecular cloning into an expression vector containing a suitable promoter and other appropriate transcription regulatory elements, and transferred into prokaryotic or eukaryotic host cells to produce recombinant gene product. Techniques for such manipulations are fully described in Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning. A Laboratory Manual (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989). Expression vectors can be used to express genes in a variety of hosts such as bacteria, bluegreen algae, plant cells, insect cells, fungal cells and animal cells. Expression vectors may include, but are not limited to, cloning vectors, modified cloning vectors, specifically designed plasmids or viruses.

[0023] Amino acid compounds which would result from manipulation and expression of the nucleic acid compounds herein disclosed are preferred embodiments of the present invention, with the amino acid compounds which would result from expression of the exemplified compounds being most preferred. Certain modifications, such as adding start codons or promoters or enhancers may be necessary to express the present amino acid compounds via the DNA compounds herein provided, and such manipulations are well known in the art. It is understood that amino acid compounds which would result from expression of allelic variants of the exemplified sequences, as well as amino acid compounds which would result from the expression of nucleic acid compounds which hybridize under stringent hybridization conditions to the nucleic acid compounds exemplified are within the scope of the present invention as well. Lastly, an amino acid sequence substantially homologous to a referent protein will have at least 90% sequence homology with the amino acid sequence of a referent protein or a peptide thereof. Also included within the scope of this invention are mutations either in the nucleic acid sequence or the translated protein which do not substantially alter the ultimate physical properties of the expressed protein. SEQ ID NO 1 is the most preferred amino acid compound, and has this sequence: VPTDGNAGLLAEPQIAMFCGRLNMHMNVQNGKWDSDPSGTKTCIDTKEGI LQYCQEVYPELQITNVVEANQPVTIQNWCKRGRKQCKTHPHFVIPYRCLV GEFVSDALLVPDKCKFLHQERMDVCETHLHWHTVAKETCSEKSINLHDYG MLLPCGIDKFRGVEFVCCPLAEESDNVDSADAEEDDSDVWWGGADTDYAD GSEDKVVEVAEEEEVAEVEEEEADDDEDDEDGDEVEEEAEEPYEEATERT TSIATTTTTTTESVEEVVRVPTTAASTPDAVDKY

[0024] Also provided in the present invention are the assays alluded to above. In particular, there are provided methods to identify the ability of a test compound to inhibit the inflammatory affects of sAPP, comprising contacting the test compound with sAPP in the presence of cells which are known to produce at least one marker of inflammation, and determining whether at least one marker of inflammation is induced. A method as described, wherein the marker is nitrite production is preferred.

[0025] Also provided are methods to identify the ability of a test compound to bind to the region of sAPP responsible for negative inflammatory effects, comprising contacting the test compound with the region of sAPP responsible for negative inflammatory effects, and determining whether the test compound binds. A method as described wherein the region comprises SEQ ID NO 1 is preferred, with a method wherein binding is determined via bioassay of inflammatory effects also being preferred. Coprecipitation assays can also be used. Coprecipitation assays can be performed according to Barger & Mattson, 69 J Neurochem 60 (1997).

EXAMPLES

[0026] The following cells, reagents and methods were used in these examples:

[0027] Cells and reagents. Primary microglia were subcultured to approximately 95% purity from neonatal rat mixed glial cultures by differential adherence and panning techniques. Unless otherwise indicated, they were subcultured in minimal essential medium (MEM) supplemented to 10% with fetal bovine serum (FBS). The N9 cell line is a myc-immortalized murine microglial cell line generated by Dr. Paola Ricciardi-Castagnoli (U. Milan, Italy); they were maintained in MEMN10% FBS and switched to serum-free MEM 18-24 h before stimulation. Primary cultures of hippocampal neurons were established from E18 rats as described previously in Barger & Mattson, 40 Mol Brain Res 116 (1996). Unless otherwise indicated, sAPP was purified (>98% homogeneity) from the conditioned medium of HEK²⁹³ transfectants as described previously Barger & Mattson, 40 Mol. Brain Res 116 (1996). The protein produced in this system is generated from βAPP⁶⁹⁵ and has a carboxyterminus consistent with α-secretase processing Oltersdorf et al., 341 Nature 144 (1989). Bacterially expressed protein for structural comparisons was generated from sequence coding for Val²⁰-Lys⁶¹² of human βAPP⁶⁹⁵ (“sAPPα”) placed in a pTrcHis (In Vitrogen) expression vector. This vector tags expressed proteins aminoterminally with a polyhistidine sequence to allow one-step purification on a nickel-affinity column. A second construct (“sAPPβ”) was generated with a stop codon after Met⁵⁹⁶. The third construct (“sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻¹¹²”) was made from sAPPα by deletion of coding sequences aminoterminal to Asp⁴⁴⁴. To exclude the possibility of contamination by bacterial endotoxin, some assays of these bacterially expressed proteins were performed in the presence of 10 μg/ml polymyxin-β sulfate. Human recombinant ApoEs were obtained from Pan Vera (Madison Wis.), and were not delipidated or subjected to reducing agents during purification. Antibodies included anti-iNOS monoclonal (Transduction Laboratories), hamster a-murine IL-1β monoclonal (Genzyme), and anti-ApoE monoclonal (Chemicon). Coincubations of sAPP and ApoE were performed at room temperature for 45 min (polyhistidine-tagged sAPP) or 60 min (HEK²⁹³-expressed sAPP). For physiological assay the proteins were coincubated at 30 nM each; for biochemical assay (precipitation) the coincubation concentrations were 300 nM (polyhistidine-tagged sAPP) or 450 nM (HEK²⁹³-expressed sAPP). Precipitation reactions were performed essentially as described Barger & Mattson, 69 J. Neurochem. 60 (1997).

[0028] EMSA. Nuclear extracts were prepared by the method of Ostrowski et al., 266 J Biol Chem 12722 (1991). Five μg of extracted protein from each treatment condition was incubated with a ³²P-labeled, kB DNA probe in EMSA buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl [pH 7.4], 20% glycerol, 50 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgCl2, 2.5 mM EDTA, 0.5% Nonidet P-40, 5 mM β-mercaptoethanol, and 250 μg/ml poly dI-dC). Electrophoresis was performed as described Barger & Mattson, 40 Mol Brain Res 116 (1996).

[0029] Nitrite assay. For determination of nitrite, 100 μl of culture medium was removed and mixed with an equal volume of 0.5% sulfanilamide and 0.05% naphthylethyleneamine dihydrochloride in 0.25% phosphoric acid. After 10 min, the resulting color reaction was measured in a spectrophotometer at 540 nm, and the readings were calibrated to those obtained from standards containing known amounts of nitrite. Data are presented as the mean±SEM for triplicate determinations within one of at least three similar experiments.

[0030] Statistics. Data were analyzed by ANOVA with Scheffe post-hoc, and p-values ≦0.05 were assumed indicative of significance.

Example 1 Determination of the Impact of sAPP on the Inflammatory Reactions in Microglia

[0031] The N9 microglial cell line, described in Corradin et al., 7 Glia 255 (1993), was treated with sAPP and measured for NF-κB activity by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). These cells responded to sAPP with an activation of NF-κB within 90 min. Induction of a κB-binding transcription factor by sAPP in primary neurons is dependent upon the elevation of cGMP8 and involves a transcription factor distinct from NF-κB (unpublished results). However, the addition of an inhibitor of cGMP-dependent protein kinase did not block the activation of NF-κB by sAPP in N9 cells, and a cell-permeant cGMP analog did not mimic the effects of sAPP in these cells. These results indicate that the activation of NF-κB by sAPP in microglial cells occurs through a cGMP-independent mechanism and thus could involve signaling events evoked by regions of sAPP distinct from the carboxyterminal sequences that stimulate cGMP-dependent neuromodulation.

Example 2 Determination whether the Activation of NF-κB Translated into Elevated Gene Expression

[0032] The levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the N9 cell line and in primary cultures of microglia were examined. A 24-h treatment of primary microglia with 5 nM sAPP elevated immunocytochemical staining for IL-1β and iNOS. Elevated levels of IL-1β and iNOS also were apparent through western blot analysis of sAPP-treated microglia. The levels of IL-1β and iNOS in the N9 cell line responded to sAPP in a dose-dependent manner, with detectable induction occurring at 100 pM. Elevated expression of iNOS was apparent within 6 h of sAPP addition.

Example 3 Determination of the Role of the Carboxyterminal 16 Residues, with Regard to Two Secretase Products

[0033] Recently, Furukawa et al. determined that the carboxyterminal 16 residues which distinguish the products of α- and β-secretase activity (sAPPα and sAPPβ, respectively) were critical for cGAP-dependent neuroprotective effects of sAPPα. Furukawa et al., 67 J. Neurochem. 1882 (1996). These findings were confirmed herein in a paradigm of neuronal death induced by 18-h glucose deprivation of primary hippocampal neurons, where treatment with 10 nM sAPPα resulted in a survival rate 222.3±19.6% of control (neurons subjected to glucose deprivation alone), and sAPPβ enhanced survival to only 126.5±12.0% of control. However, the Furukawa experiments were performed only in cultures lacking significant numbers of microglia. To explore the potential indirect effects of sAPP on neuronal survival mediated through microglia, the relationship between specific sAPP sequences and microglial activation were evaluated. As an index of activation, the culture medium of primary cultures of microglia was assayed for the presence of nitrite, a stable product of nitric oxide formation. Although there was a modest quantitative difference, both sAPPα and sAPPβ potently elevated nitrite levels in these cultures (FIG. 1). The neuroprotective activity of sAPPα is retained in a construct containing residues 444-612 (βAPP⁶⁹⁵ numbering) Furukawa et al., 67 J. Neurochem. 1882 (1996); however, this construct was deficient in microglial activation (FIG. 1). These differences in structural requirements suggest that different domains of sAPP are involved in the protection of neurons and the activation of microglia, consistent with the lack of involvement of cGMP in the latter.

[0034] To test further the implications of this relationship, indirect neurotoxicity of sAPP in a paradigm where soluble factors can be applied to microglia, then removed before exposure of the microglia to primary neurons was tested. Primary microglia were plated on a permeable membrane suspended in the bottom of a culture-well basket. The cultures were pretreated for 24 h with 5 nM sAPPα, sAPPβ, or sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹², then washed and transferred to 35-mm wells containing primary hippocampal neurons. Viability of all neurons decreased by approximately 18% over the subsequent 48 h, and those exposed to untreated microglia were further compromised by an additional 34% (Table 1). However, toxicity was even greater in the presence of microglia that had been pretreated with sAPPα or sAPPβ; this correlation of microglial activation with neurotoxicity was extended to the deficient activity of sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹² in both assays. TABLE 1 Indirect neurotoxicity of sAPPs. Neuronal survival (% of initial) Basket contents 24 h 48 h 1. None (neurons alone) 93.1 ± 4.2 82.3 ± 6.7 2. Microglia, untreated 67.2 ± 9.1 48.0 ± 7.6 3. Microglia pretreated with sAPPα  37.4 ± 3.6*  16.9 ± 5.7* 4. Microglia pretreated with sAPPβ  43.2 ± 5.0*  24.6 ± 4.9* 5. Microglia pretreated with sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹² 70.2 ± 5.4 39.4 ± 0.3

[0035] All sAPP pretreatments were performed at a concentration of 3 nM. Neuronal survival was determined by a blinded observer using established morphological criteria from photographs of rat primary hippocampal neurons taken immediately before exposure to microglia (“initial”) and at 24-h intervals thereafter. Data are expressed as the mean percentage (±SEM) of initial cell number present at each time point for triplicate cultures.

Example 4 Determination of Nitrate Production by ApoE4/sAPP v. ApoE3/sAPP Treated N9 Cells

[0036] Recently, it was determined that bioactivities of sAPP can be modulated differentially by two forms of human apolipoprotein E (ApoE) which are encoded by gene alleles in disequilibrium with AD. Specifically, physical interaction of ApoE3 with sAPP inhibits an activity associated with the aminoterminal 443 residues; ApoE4 was less potent in this inhibition Barger & Mattson, 69 J. Neurochem. 60 (1997). Incubation with ApoE3 for 45 min also inhibited the ability of sAPPα to elevate nitrite production in N9 cells and to evoke microglia-mediated neurotoxicity; ApoE4 was less effective in both respects. Coprecipitation experiments revealed that ApoE3 was capable of binding sAPPα but not sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹². The latter data support the hypothesis that ApoE3 binds and masks sAPP domains responsible for activating microglia. The relative deficiency of ApoE4 binding to sAPPα may explain its inability to affect sAPPα bioactivity.

Example 5 Determination of Region Responsible for Inflammatory Activity of sAPP

[0037] Previous studies have implicated an sAPPα region containing the sequence R-E-R-M-S (amino acids 328-332 in the βAPP⁶⁹⁵ numbering system) in some biological activities of sAPPα. The deletion construct termed sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹² (lacking the RERMS sequence) is deficient in pro-inflammatory activity (Barger and Harmon, 388 Nature 878 (1997). Therefore, additional experiments were performed to test the contribution of this RERMS region to pro-inflammatory activity of sAPPα. A deletion construct was generated that included Leu³⁰⁴ through Lys⁶¹². In assays of nitrite production in microgial cells, this construct also was inactive, demonstrating that the RERMS region is not sufficient to activate inflammatory events in microglia. The comparison to sAPPα indicates that amino acids Val²⁰-Tyr³⁰³ are required for full pro-inflammatory activity. TABLE 2 Structure/function analysis of RERMS region of sAPPα. Construct Nitrite produced (μM) None 0.29 ± 0.03 sAPPα, 10 nM  4.22 ± 0.35* sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹², 10 nM 0.31 ± 0.01 sAPPα³⁰⁴⁻⁶¹², 10 nM 0.32 ± 0.01 sAPPα, 30 nM  4.92 ± 0.23* sAPPα⁴⁴⁴⁻⁶¹², 30 nM 0.79 ± 0.16 sAPPα³⁰⁴⁻⁶¹², 30 nM 0.37 ± 0.03

[0038] Although the present invention has been fully described herein, it is to be noted that various changes and modifications are apparent to those skilled in the art. Such changes and modifications are to be understood as included within the scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.

1 2 1 284 PRT Homo sapiens 1 Val Pro Thr Asp Gly Asn Ala Gly Leu Leu Ala Glu Pro Gln Ile Ala 1 5 10 15 Met Phe Cys Gly Arg Leu Asn Met His Met Asn Val Gln Asn Gly Lys 20 25 30 Trp Asp Ser Asp Pro Ser Gly Thr Lys Thr Cys Ile Asp Thr Lys Glu 35 40 45 Gly Ile Leu Gln Tyr Cys Gln Glu Val Tyr Pro Glu Leu Gln Ile Thr 50 55 60 Asn Val Val Glu Ala Asn Gln Pro Val Thr Ile Gln Asn Trp Cys Lys 65 70 75 80 Arg Gly Arg Lys Gln Cys Lys Thr His Pro His Phe Val Ile Pro Tyr 85 90 95 Arg Cys Leu Val Gly Glu Phe Val Ser Asp Ala Leu Leu Val Pro Asp 100 105 110 Lys Cys Lys Phe Leu His Gln Glu Arg Met Asp Val Cys Glu Thr His 115 120 125 Leu His Trp His Thr Val Ala Lys Glu Thr Cys Ser Glu Lys Ser Thr 130 135 140 Asn Leu His Asp Tyr Gly Met Leu Leu Pro Cys Gly Ile Asp Lys Phe 145 150 155 160 Arg Gly Val Glu Phe Val Cys Cys Pro Leu Ala Glu Glu Ser Asp Asn 165 170 175 Val Asp Ser Ala Asp Ala Glu Glu Asp Asp Ser Asp Val Trp Trp Gly 180 185 190 Gly Ala Asp Thr Asp Tyr Ala Asp Gly Ser Glu Asp Lys Val Val Glu 195 200 205 Val Ala Glu Glu Glu Glu Val Ala Glu Val Glu Glu Glu Glu Ala Asp 210 215 220 Asp Asp Glu Asp Asp Glu Asp Gly Asp Glu Val Glu Glu Glu Ala Glu 225 230 235 240 Glu Pro Tyr Glu Glu Ala Thr Glu Arg Thr Thr Ser Ile Ala Thr Thr 245 250 255 Thr Thr Thr Thr Thr Glu Ser Val Glu Glu Val Val Arg Val Pro Thr 260 265 270 Thr Ala Ala Ser Thr Pro Asp Ala Val Asp Lys Tyr 275 280 2 852 DNA Homo sapiens 2 gtacccactg atggtaatgc tggcctgctg gctgaacccc agattgccat gttctgtggc 60 agactgaaca tgcacatgaa tgtccagaat gggaagtggg attcagatcc atcagggacc 120 aaaacctgca ttgataccaa ggaaggcatc ctgcagtatt gccaagaagt ctaccctgaa 180 ctgcagatca ccaatgtggt agaagccaac caaccagtga ccatccagaa ctggtgcaag 240 cggggccgca agcagtgcaa gacccatccc cactttgtga ttccctaccg ctgcttagtt 300 ggtgagtttg taagtgatgc ccttctcgtt cctgacaagt gcaaattctt acaccaggag 360 aggatggatg tttgcgaaac tcatcttcac tggcacaccg tcgccaaaga gacatgcagt 420 gagaagagta ccaacttgca tgactacggc atgttgctgc cctgcggaat tgacaagttc 480 cgaggggtag agtttgtgtg ttgcccactg gctgaagaaa gtgacaatgt ggattctgct 540 gatgcggagg aggatgactc ggatgtctgg tggggcggag cagacacaga ctatgcagat 600 gggagtgaag acaaagtagt agaagtagca gaggaggaag aagtggctga ggtggaagaa 660 gaagaagccg atgatgacga ggacgatgag gatggtgatg aggtagagga agaggctgag 720 gaaccctacg aagaagccac agagagaacc accagcattg ccaccaccac caccaccacc 780 acagagtctg tggaagaggt ggttcgagtt cctacaacag cagccagtac ccctgatgcc 840 gttgacaagt at 852 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method to reduce inflammation caused by sAPP in the brain of a mammal inneed of such reduction, comprising administering a pharmaceutically-effective amount of a compound which inhibits the amino terminal region of sAPP involved in inflammatory response.
 2. A method of claim 1, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises Val²⁰ to Tyr³⁰³ using the βAPP₆₉₅ numbering system.
 3. A method of claim 1, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises the region which binds ApoE.
 4. A method of claim 1, wherein the mammal is a human.
 5. A method of claim 4, wherein the inflammation is due to reduced levels of ApoE3.
 6. A method of claim 4, wherein the inflammation is caused by Alzheimer's disease.
 7. A method of claim 4, wherein the inflammation is caused by traumatic brain injury.
 8. A method of claim 4, wherein the compound is ApoE3.
 9. A method of claim 4, wherein the compound is an mRNA transcript of SEQ ID NO
 2. 10. A method to potentiate the neuroprotective effect of sAPPα in a person in need of such potentiation, comprising administering a pharmaceutically-effective amount of compound which inhibits the amino-terminal region of sAPPα involved in inflammatory response.
 11. A method of claim 10, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises Val²⁰ to Tyr³⁰³ using the βAPP₆₉₅ numbering system.
 12. A method of claim 11, wherein the amino terminal region inhibited comprises the region which binds ApoE.
 13. A method of claim 11, wherein the mammal is a human.
 14. A method of claim 12, wherein the inflammation is due to reduced levels of ApoE3.
 15. A method of claim 12, wherein the inflammation is caused by Alzheimer's disease.
 16. A method of claim 12, wherein the inflammation is caused by traumatic brain injury.
 17. A method of claim 12, wherein the compound is ApoE3.
 18. A method of claim 12, wherein the compound is an mRNA transcript of SEQ ID NO
 2. 19. An isolated amino acid compound consisting essentially of SEQ ID NO
 1. 20. A method to recombinantly produce an amino acid of SEQ ID NO 1, comprising expressing SEQ ID NO
 2. 21. A method to identify the ability of a test compound to inhibit the inflammatory affects of sAPP, comprising contacting the test compound with sAPP in the presence of cells which are known to produce at least one marker of inflammation, and determining whether at least one marker of inflammation is induced.
 22. A method of claim 21, wherein the marker is nitrite production.
 23. A method to identify the ability of a test compound to bind to the region of sAPP responsible for negative inflammatory effects, comprising contacting the test compound with the region of sAPP responsible for negative inflammatory effects and determining whether the test compound binds.
 24. A method of claim 23, wherein said region comprises SEQ ID NO
 2. 25. A method of claim 24, wherein binding is determined via a coprecipitation assay. 